What is the CompTIA Network+ certification?

Network+ (Network Plus) is a mid-level certification for network technicians, launched April 30, 1999. This certification is designed to test the competency of a mid-level network technician in supporting and configuring TCP/IP clients in terms of network design, cabling, hardware setup, configuration, installation, support, and troubleshooting.
The Network+ certification is sponsored by CompTIA, which is the Computing Technology Industry Association (formerly ABCD: The Microcomputer Industry Association). CompTIA is a large trade group, founded in 1982 and made up of resellers, distributors, and manufacturers. It sets voluntary guidelines dealing with business ethics and professionalism, and is involved with many issues including product returns, warranty claims, and price protection.
The Network+ exam contains situational, traditional, and identification types of questions. All of the questions are multiple choice, and there is only one answer for each question. The Network+ exam is open to anybody, although it is designed to be taken by those with at least 18 months of on-the-job experience as a network technician, as well as the A+ certification or equivalent knowledge.
The exam has 60 to 70 questions with a 90-minute time limit. A passing score is 68%. The Network+ exam tests the ability of a networking technician to install, maintain, troubleshoot, and support a network, and understand various aspects of networking technologies, including TCP/IP and the OSI model. It also tests knowledge of network components and where they function in association with the OSI model, network cabling, network security, and network troubleshooting. Once an individual is Network+ certified, recertification is not required when the test is revised.
CompTIA also sponsors certification for document imaging (Certified Document Imaging Architech [CDIA]) and a hardware certification exam (A+). The CompTIA certifications are in general more basic and less product-specific than other certifications, such as Microsoft's MCSE or a Novell CNE.
For additional information on Network+ Certification, see:
http://www.comptia.org/home.aspx
You can take the Network+ certification exam, as well as many other certifications, at a number of testing centers around the world. To register for an exam via one of these centers, Thomson Prometric, see the online registration web site at:
http://www.blogger.com/sagan5.tk

Different types of networks

Different types of networks:
Different types of (private) networks are distinguished based on their size (in terms of the number of machines), their data transfer speed, and their reach. Private networks are networks that belong to a single organisation. There are usually said to be three categories of networks:

1. LAN (local area network)
2. MAN (metropolitan area network)
3. WAN (wide area network)
   There are two other types of networks: TANs (Tiny Area Network), which are the same as LANs but smaller (2 to 3 machines), and CANs (Campus Area Networks), which are the same as MANs (with bandwidth limited between each of the network's LANs).

LAN:

LAN stands for Local Area Network. It's a group of computers which all belong to the same organisation, and which are linked within a small geographic area using a network, and often the same technology (the most widespread being Ethernet).
A local area network is a network in its simplest form. Data transfer speeds over a local area network can reach up to 10 Mbps (such as for an Ethernet network) and 1 Gbps (as with FDDI or Gigabit Ethernet). A local area network can reach as many as 100, or even 1000, users.
By expanding the definition of a LAN to the services that it provides, two different operating modes can be defined:
* In a "peer-to-peer" network, in which communication is carried out from one computer to another, without a central computer, and where each computer has the same role.
* In a "client/server" environment, in which a central computer provides network services to users.

MANs

MANs (Metropolitan Area Networks) connect multiple geographically nearby LANs to one another (over an area of up to a few dozen kilometres) at high speeds. Thus, a MAN lets two remote nodes communicate as if they were part of the same local area network.
A MAN is made from switches or routers connected to one another with high-speed links (usually fibre optic cables).

WANs
A WAN (Wide Area Network or extended network) connects multiple LANs to one another over great geographic distances.
The speed available on a WAN varies depending on the cost of the connections (which increases with distance) and may be low.
WANs operate using routers, which can "choose" the most appropriate path for data to take to reach a network node.
The most well-known WAN is the Internet.

What is the difference between an Ethernet hub and switch?

Although hubs and switches both glue the PCs in a network together, a switch is more expensive and a network built with switches is generally considered faster than one built with hubs. Why?

When a hub receives a packet (chunk) of data (a frame in Ethernet lingo) at one of its ports from a PC on the network, it transmits (repeats) the packet to all of its ports and, thus, to all of the other PCs on the network. If two or more PCs on the network try to send packets at the same time a collision is said to occur. When that happens all of the PCs have to go though a routine to resolve the conflict. The process is prescribed in the Ethernet Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) protocol. Each Ethernet Adapter has both a receiver and a transmitter. If the adapters didn't have to listen with their receivers for collisions they would be able to send data at the same time they are receiving it (full duplex). Because they have to operate at half duplex (data flows one way at a time) and a hub retransmits data from one PC to all of the PCs, the maximum bandwidth is 100 Mhz and that bandwidth is shared by all of the PC's connected to the hub. The result is when a person using a computer on a hub downloads a large file or group of files from another computer the network becomes congested. In a 10 Mhz 10Base-T network the affect is to slow the network to nearly a crawl. The affect on a small, 100 Mbps (million bits per scond), 5-port network is not as significant.

Two computers can be connected directly together in an Ethernet with a crossover cable. A crossover cable doesn't have a collision problem. It hardwires the Ethernet transmitter on one computer to the receiver on the other. Most 100BASE-TX Ethernet Adapters can detect when listening for collisions is not required with a process known as auto-negotiation and will operate in a full duplex mode when it is permitted. The result is a crossover cable doesn't have delays caused by collisions, data can be sent in both directions simultaneously, the maximum available bandwidth is 200 Mbps, 100 Mbps each way, and there are no other PC's with which the bandwidth must be shared.

An Ethernet switch automatically divides the network into multiple segments, acts as a high-speed, selective bridge between the segments, and supports simultaneous connections of multiple pairs of computers which don't compete with other pairs of computers for network bandwidth. It accomplishes this by maintaining a table of each destination address and its port. When the switch receives a packet, it reads the destination address from the header information in the packet, establishes a temporary connection between the source and destination ports, sends the packet on its way, and then terminates the connection.

Picture a switch as making multiple temporary crossover cable connections between pairs of computers (the cables are actually straight-thru cables; the crossover function is done inside the switch). High-speed electronics in the switch automatically connect the end of one cable (source port) from a sending computer to the end of another cable (destination port) going to the receiving computer on a per packet basis. Multiple connections like this can occur simultaneously. It's as simple as that. And like a crossover cable between two PCs, PC's on an Ethernet switch do not share the transmission media, do not experience collisions or have to listen for them, can operate in a full-duplex mode, have bandwidth as high as 200 Mbps, 100 Mbps each way, and do not share this bandwidth with other PCs on the switch. In short, a switch is "more better."

What is LAN Card

With the increasing use of the computers and the networking the local area network of the LAN is one such network type which links the two computers in a connection.
For this connection a Local area network card or the LAN card is required which enables the connection of the computers in a network. It is a piece of hardware which is connected inside the PC linking the computer network.
The LAN Card is of both the common types which are the OSI layer 1 and 2, dealing with the physical as well as the data link layer respectively. It uses the correctly entered MAC addresses for the network to work. This then allows the computers to connect using cables or even wirelessly which then requires a special type of LAN card called the WLAN card.
With the increase in the development and technology, the local area network of the wireless type is now mostly preferred. Therefore a Wireless LAN Card is required for this purpose. The computers with the wireless LAN Card can transmit and receive data via radio waves using the special technology of SST or the Spread-Spectrum technology.
The wireless LANs are available in four basic types which include the 802.11, followed by type a, b and also g.
Any sort of LAN card you use will have some of the typical features of a network card which includes the twisted pair, the AUI socket and also the BNC. It is at the AUI socket that the network cable has to be connected. The LAN cards usually are designed to support the rate transfer to be ranging from 10 to 1000 megabits per second.


A network interface card, network adapter, network interface controller (NIC), or LAN adapter is a computer hardware component designed to allow computers to communicate over a computer network. It is both an OSI layer 1 (physical layer) and layer 2 (data link layer) device, as it provides physical access to a networking medium and provides a low-level addressing system through the use of MAC addresses. It allows users to connect to each other either by using cables or wirelessly.
Although other network technologies exist (e.g. Token Ring), Ethernet has achieved near-ubiquity since the mid-1990s. Every Ethernet network card has a unique 48-bit serial number called a MAC address, which is stored in ROM carried on the card. Every computer on an Ethernet network must have a card with a unique MAC address. Normally it is safe to assume that no two network cards will share the same address, because card vendors purchase blocks of addresses from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and assign a unique address to each card at the time of manufacture.

Madge 4/16Mbps TokenRing ISA NIC.

Ethernet 10Base-5/2 ISA NIC.
Whereas network cards used to be expansion cards that plug into a computer bus, the low cost and ubiquity of the Ethernet standard means that most newer computers have a network interface built into the motherboard. These either have Ethernet capabilities integrated into the motherboard chipset or implemented via a low cost dedicated Ethernet chip, connected through the PCI (or the newer PCI express) bus. A separate network card is not required unless multiple interfaces are needed or some other type of network is used. Newer motherboards may even have dual network (Ethernet) interfaces built-in.

Network Media Types

Network Media Types

Upon completing this chapter, you will be able to:

• Describe the primary types and uses of twisted-pair cables

• Describe the primary types and uses of coaxial cables

• Describe the primary types and uses of fiber-optic cables

• Describe the primary types and uses of wireless media

• Compare and contrast the primary types and uses of different media

Network media is the actual path over which an electrical signal travels as it moves from one component to another. This chapter describes the common types of network media, including twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and wireless.

Twisted-Pair Cable:

Twisted-pair cable is a type of cabling that is used for telephone communications and most modern Ethernet networks. A pair of wires forms a circuit that can transmit data. The pairs are twisted to provide protection against crosstalk, the noise generated by adjacent pairs. When electrical current flows through a wire, it creates a small, circular magnetic field around the wire. When two wires in an electrical circuit are placed close together, their magnetic fields are the exact opposite of each other. Thus, the two magnetic fields cancel each other out. They also cancel out any outside magnetic fields. Twisting the wires can enhance this cancellation effect. Using cancellation together with twisting the wires, cable designers can effectively provide self-shielding for wire pairs within the network media.

Two basic types of twisted-pair cable exist: unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted pair (STP). The following sections discuss UTP and STP cable in more detail.

UTP Cable:

UTP cable is a medium that is composed of pairs of wires (see Figure 8-1). UTP cable is used in a variety of networks. Each of the eight individual copper wires in UTP cable \is covered by an insulating material. In addition, the wires in each pair are twisted around each other.

Figure 8-1 Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cable

UTP cable relies solely on the cancellation effect produced by the twisted wire pairs to limit signal degradation caused by electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI). To further reduce crosstalk between the pairs in UTP cable, the number of twists in the wire pairs varies. UTP cable must follow precise specifications governing how many twists or braids are permitted per meter (3.28 feet) of cable.

UTP cable often is installed using a Registered Jack 45 (RJ-45) connector (see Figure 8-2). The RJ-45 is an eight-wire connector used commonly to connect computers onto a local-area network (LAN), especially Ethernets.

Figure 8-2 RJ-45 Connectors

When used as a networking medium, UTP cable has four pairs of either 22- or 24-gauge copper wire. UTP used as a networking medium has an impedance of 100 ohms; this differentiates it from other types of twisted-pair wiring such as that used for telephone wiring, which has impedance of 600 ohms.

UTP cable offers many advantages. Because UTP has an external diameter of approximately 0.43 cm (0.17 inches), its small size can be advantageous during installation. Because it has such a small external diameter, UTP does not fill up wiring ducts as rapidly as other types of cable. This can be an extremely important factor to consider, particularly when installing a network in an older building. UTP cable is easy to install and is less expensive than other types of networking media. In fact, UTP costs less per meter than any other type of LAN cabling. And because UTP can be used with most of the major networking architectures, it continues to grow in popularity.

Disadvantages also are involved in using twisted-pair cabling, however. UTP cable is more prone to electrical noise and interference than other types of networking media, and the distance between signal boosts is shorter for UTP than it is for coaxial and fiber-optic cables.

Although UTP was once considered to be slower at transmitting data than other types of cable, this is no longer true. In fact, UTP is considered the fastest copper-based medium today. The following summarizes the features of UTP cable:

• Speed and throughput—10 to 1000 Mbps

• Average cost per node—Least expensive

• Media and connector size—Small

• Maximum cable length—100 m (short)

Commonly used types of UTP cabling are as follows:

• Category 1—Used for telephone communications. Not suitable for transmitting data.

• Category 2—Capable of transmitting data at speeds up to 4 megabits per second (Mbps).

• Category 3—Used in 10BASE-T networks. Can transmit data at speeds up to 10 Mbps.

• Category 4—Used in Token Ring networks. Can transmit data at speeds up to 16 Mbps.

• Category 5—Can transmit data at speeds up to 100 Mbps.

• Category 5e —Used in networks running at speeds up to 1000 Mbps (1 gigabit per second [Gbps]).

• Category 6—Typically, Category 6 cable consists of four pairs of 24 American Wire Gauge (AWG) copper wires. Category 6 cable is currently the fastest standard for UTP.

Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable combines the techniques of shielding, cancellation, and wire twisting. Each pair of wires is wrapped in a metallic foil (see Figure 8-3). The four pairs of wires then are wrapped in an overall metallic braid or foil, usually 150-ohm cable. As specified for use in Ethernet network installations, STP reduces electrical noise both within the cable (pair-to-pair coupling, or crosstalk) and from outside the cable (EMI and RFI). STP usually is installed with STP data connector, which is created especially for the STP cable. However, STP cabling also can use the same RJ connectors that UTP uses.

Figure 8-3 Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

Although STP prevents interference better than UTP, it is more expensive and difficult to install. In addition, the metallic shielding must be grounded at both ends. If it is improperly grounded, the shield acts like an antenna and picks up unwanted signals. Because of its cost and difficulty with termination, STP is rarely used in Ethernet networks. STP is primarily used in Europe.

The following summarizes the features of STP cable:

• Speed and throughput—10 to 100 Mbps

• Average cost per node—Moderately expensive

• Media and connector size—Medium to large

• Maximum cable length—100 m (short)

When comparing UTP and STP, keep the following points in mind:

• The speed of both types of cable is usually satisfactory for local-area distances.

• These are the least-expensive media for data communication. UTP is less expensive than STP.

• Because most buildings are already wired with UTP, many transmission standards are adapted to use it, to avoid costly rewiring with an alternative cable type.

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable consists of a hollow outer cylindrical conductor that surrounds a single inner wire made of two conducting elements. One of these elements, located in the center of the cable, is a copper conductor. Surrounding the copper conductor is a layer of flexible insulation. Over this insulating material is a woven copper braid or metallic foil that acts both as the second wire in the circuit and as a shield for the inner conductor. This second layer, or shield, can help reduce the amount of outside interference. Covering this shield is the cable jacket. (See Figure 8-4.)

Figure 8-4 Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable supports 10 to 100 Mbps and is relatively inexpensive, although it is more costly than UTP on a per-unit length. However, coaxial cable can be cheaper for a physical bus topology because less cable will be needed. Coaxial cable can be cabled over longer distances than twisted-pair cable. For example, Ethernet can run approximately 100 meters (328 feet) using twisted-pair cabling. Using coaxial cable increases this distance to 500m (1640.4 feet).

For LANs, coaxial cable offers several advantages. It can be run with fewer boosts from repeaters for longer distances between network nodes than either STP or UTP cable. Repeaters regenerate the signals in a network so that they can cover greater distances. Coaxial cable is less expensive than fiber-optic cable, and the technology is well known; it has been used for many years for all types of data communication.

When working with cable, you need to consider its size. As the thickness, or diameter, of the cable increases, so does the difficulty in working with it. Many times cable must be pulled through existing conduits and troughs that are limited in size. Coaxial cable comes in a variety of sizes. The largest diameter (1 centimeter [cm]) was specified for use as Ethernet backbone cable because historically it had greater transmission length and noise-rejection characteristics. This type of coaxial cable is frequently referred to as Thicknet. As its nickname suggests, Thicknet cable can be too rigid to install easily in some situations because of its thickness. The general rule is that the more difficult the network medium is to install, the more expensive it is to install. Coaxial cable is more expensive to install than twisted-pair cable. Thicknet cable is almost never used except for special-purpose installations.

A connection device known as a vampire tap was used to connect network devices to Thicknet. The vampire tap then was connected to the computers via a more flexible cable called the attachment unit interface (AUI). Although this 15-pin cable was still thick and tricky to terminate, it was much easier to work with than Thicknet.

In the past, coaxial cable with an outside diameter of only 0.35 cm (sometimes referred to as Thinnet) was used in Ethernet networks. Thinnet was especially useful for cable installations that required the cable to make many twists and turns. Because it was easier to install, it was also cheaper to install. Thus, it was sometimes referred to as Cheapernet. However, because the outer copper or metallic braid in coaxial cable comprises half the electrical circuit, special care had to be taken to ensure that it was properly grounded. Grounding was done by ensuring that a solid electrical connection existed at both ends of the cable. Frequently, however, installers failed to properly ground the cable. As a result, poor shield connection was one of the biggest sources of connection problems in the installation of coaxial cable. Connection problems resulted in electrical noise, which interfered with signal transmittal on the networking medium. For this reason, despite its small diameter, Thinnet no longer is commonly used in Ethernet networks.

The most common connectors used with Thinnet are BNC, short for British Naval Connector or Bayonet Neill Concelman, connectors (see Figure 8-5). The basic BNC connector is a male type mounted at each end of a cable. This connector has a center pin connected to the center cable conductor and a metal tube connected to the outer cable shield. A rotating ring outside the tube locks the cable to any female connector. BNC T-connectors are female devices for connecting two cables to a network interface card (NIC). A BNC barrel connector facilitates connecting two cables together.

Figure 8-5 Thinnet and BNC Connector

The following summarizes the features of coaxial cables:

• Speed and throughput—10 to 100 Mbps

• Average cost per node—Inexpensive

• Media and connector size—Medium

• Maximum cable length—500 m (medium)

Plenum Cable

Plenum cable is the cable that runs in plenum spaces of a building. In building construction, a plenum (pronounced PLEH-nuhm, from Latin meaning "full") is a separate space provided for air circulation for heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (sometimes referred to as HVAC), typically in the space between the structural ceiling and a drop-down ceiling. In buildings with computer installations, the plenum space often is used to house connecting communication cables. Because ordinary cable introduces a toxic hazard in the event of fire, special plenum cabling is required in plenum areas.

In the United States, typical plenum cable sizes are AWG sizes 22 and 24. Plenum cabling often is made of Teflon and is more expensive than ordinary cabling. Its outer material is more resistant to flames and, when burning, produces less smoke than ordinary cabling. Both twisted-pair and coaxial cable are made in plenum cable versions.

Wireless Communication

Wireless communication uses radio frequencies (RF) or infrared (IR) waves to transmit data between devices on a LAN. For wireless LANs, a key component is the wireless hub, or access point, used for signal distribution (see Figure 8-8).

Figure 8-8 Wireless Network

To receive the signals from the access point, a PC or laptop must install a wireless adapter card (wireless NIC). Wireless signals are electromagnetic waves that can travel through the vacuum of outer space and through a medium such as air. Therefore, no physical medium is necessary for wireless signals, making them a very versatile way to build a network. Wireless signals use portions of the RF spectrum to transmit voice, video, and data. Wireless frequencies range from 3 kilohertz (kHz) to 300 gigahertz (GHz). The data-transmission rates range from 9 kilobits per second (kbps) to as high as 54 Mbps.

The primary difference between electromagnetic waves is their frequency. Low-frequency electromagnetic waves have a long wavelength (the distance from one peak to the next on the sine wave), while high-frequency electromagnetic waves have a short wavelength.

Some common applications of wireless data communication include the following:

• Accessing the Internet using a cellular phone

• Establishing a home or business Internet connection over satellite

• Beaming data between two hand-held computing devices

• Using a wireless keyboard and mouse for the PC

Another common application of wireless data communication is the wireless LAN (WLAN), which is built in accordance with Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 802.11 standards. WLANs typically use radio waves (for example, 902 megahertz [MHz]), microwaves (for example, 2.4 GHz), and IR waves (for example, 820 nanometers [nm]) for communication. Wireless technologies are a crucial part of the today's networking. See Chapter 28, "Wireless LANs," for a more detailed discuss on wireless networking.

Comparing Media Types

Presented in Table 8-1 are comparisons of the features of the common network media. This chart provides an overview of various media that you can use as a reference. The medium is possibly the single most important long-term investment made in a network. The choice of media type will affect the type of NICs installed, the speed of the network, and the capability of the network to meet future needs.

Table 8-1 Media Type Comparison

Media Type	Maximum Segment Length	Speed	Cost	Advantages	Disadvantages
UTP	100 m	10 Mbps to 1000 Mbps	Least expensive	Easy to install; widely available and widely used	Susceptible to interference; can cover only a limited distance
STP	100 m	10 Mbps to 100 Mbps	More expensive than UTP	Reduced crosstalk; more resistant to EMI than Thinnet or UTP	Difficult to work with; can cover only a limited distance
Coaxial	500 m (Thicknet) 185 m (Thinnet)	10 Mbps to 100 Mbps	Relatively inexpensive, but more costly than UTP	Less susceptible to EMI interference than other types of copper media	Difficult to work with (Thicknet); limited bandwidth; limited application (Thinnet); damage to cable can bring down entire network
Fiber-Optic	10 km and farther (single-mode) 2 km and farther (multimode)	100 Mbps to 100 Gbps (single mode) 100 Mbps to 9.92 Gbps (multimode)	Expensive	Cannot be tapped, so security is better; can be used over great distances; is not susceptible to EMI; has a higher data rate than coaxial and twisted-pair cable	Difficult to terminate

Summary

In this chapter, you learned the following key points:

• Coaxial cable consists of a hollow outer cylindrical conductor that surrounds a single inner wire conductor.

• UTP cable is a four-pair wire medium used in a variety of networks.

• STP cable combines the techniques of shielding, cancellation, and wire twisting.

• Fiber-optic cable is a networking medium capable of conducting modulated light transmission.

• Wireless signals are electromagnetic waves that can travel through the vacuum of outer space and through a medium such as air.

Review Exercises

1. What is the maximum cable length for STP?
   1. 100 feet
   2. 150 feet
   3. 100 meters
   4. 1000 meters
   
   
2. Which connector does UTP use?
   1. STP
   2. BNC
   3. RJ-45
   4. RJ-69
   
   
3. What is an advantage that coaxial cable has over STP or UTP?
   1. It is capable of achieving 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps.
   2. It is inexpensive.
   3. It can run for a longer distance unboosted.
   4. None of the above.
   
   
4. A ______ fiber-optic cable transmits multiple streams of LED-generated light.
   1. multimode
   2. multichannel
   3. multiphase
   4. None of the above
   
   
5. Wireless communication uses which of the following to transmit data between devices on a LAN?
   1. Radio frequencies
   2. LED-generated light
   3. Fiber optics
   4. None of the above
   
   
6. What is one advantage of using fiber-optic cable in networks?
   1. It is inexpensive.
   2. It is easy to install.
   3. It is an industry standard and is available at any electronics store.
   4. It is capable of higher data rates than either coaxial or twisted-pair cable.

There are five different Networking Topologies :

A) Bus

B) Star

C) Ring

D) Mesh

E) Tree.
When networks are design using multiple topologies it is called Hybrid Networks, this concept is usually utilized in complex networks were larger number of computer clients are required.
Bus Topology:
Bus topology is one the easiest topologies to install, it does not require lots of cabling. There are two most popular Ethernet cable types which are used in this topology they are 10Base-2 and 10BaseT. Bus topology based networks works with very limited devices. It performs fine as long as computer count remain with in 12 – 15, problems occurs when number of computer increases.Bus topology uses one common cable (backbone) to connect all devices in the network in linear shape. Network interface cards of all network devices are attached to single communication medium backbone cable. When any computer sends out message in the network it is broadcasted in the entire network but only intended computer accepts the message and process it. Bus topology provide simplicity to the network, however there is big disadvantage of this topology, if main single network cable some how gets damaged, it will shut down the entire network no computer will run on network and no communication can be made among computers until backbone cable is replaced.

Ring Topology:

Ring topology is one of the old ways of building computer network design and it is pretty much obsolete. FDDI, SONET or Token Ring technologies are used to build ring technology. It is not widely popular in terms of usability but incase if you find it any where it will mostly be in schools or office buildings. In ring network topology computers and other networking devices are attached to each other in such a way that they have devices adjacent to each other (Left and right side). All messages are travelled in the same directory either clockwise or anticlockwise. In case of failure of any device or cable the whole network will be down and communication will not be possible.

Star Topology:

This is the most commonly used network topology design you will come across in LAN computer networks. In Star, all computers are connected to central device called hub, router or switches using Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) or Shielded Twisted Pair cables.In star topology, we require more connecting devices like routers, cables unlike in bus topology where entire network is supported by single backbone. The most practical point of Star topology success is that the entire network does not go down incase of failure of a computer or cable or device, it will only affect the computer whose wire failed rest of the network will be working fine. However, incase of failure of central communication device such as Hub, Router or Switch the entire network will collapse. Star topology is widely used in homes, offices and in buildings because of its commercial success.
Tree Topology:

Just as name suggest, the network design is little confusing and complex to understand at first but if we have better understanding of Star and Bus topologies then Tree is very simple. Tree topology is basically the mixture of many Star topology designs connected together using bus topology. Devices like Hub can be directly connected to Tree bus and each hub performs as root of a tree of the network devices. Tree topology is very dynamic in nature and it holds potential of expandability of networks far better than other topologies like Bus and Star.

Mesh Topology:

Mesh topology is designed over the concept of routing. Basically it uses router to choose the shortest distance for the destination. In topologies like star, bus etc, message is broadcasted to entire network and only intended computer accepts the message, but in mesh the message is only sent to the destination computer which finds its route it self with the help of router. Internet is based on mesh topology. Routers plays important role in mesh topology, routers are responsible to route the message to its destination address or computer. When every device is connected to every other device it is known as full mesh topology and if every device is connected indirectly to each other then it is called partial mesh topology.

Conclusion:

Topologies are essence of computer networks design. Efficent networks can only be built based on the complete knowledge and understanding of above mentioned topologies. Knowledge of every communication device is of equal importance to help you find the best option for your network requirements. Optimum networks can be built with complete knowledge and understanding of computer network devices and how they are designed, any mistake in choosing inappropriate techniques, device etc can only be the waste of time, resources and efforts.

What is TOPOLOGY?

A short and idiosyncratic answer

Robert Bruner
Basically, topology is the modern version of geometry, the study of all different sorts of spaces. The thing that distinguishes different kinds of geometry from each other (including topology here as a kind of geometry) is in the kinds of transformations that are allowed before you really consider something changed. (This point of view was first suggested by Felix Klein, a famous German mathematician of the late 1800 and early 1900's.)
In ordinary Euclidean geometry, you can move things around and flip them over, but you can't stretch or bend them. This is called "congruence" in geometry class. Two things are congruent if you can lay one on top of the other in such a way that they exactly match.
In projective geometry, invented during the Renaissance to understand perspective drawing, two things are considered the same if they are both views of the same object. For example, look at a plate on a table from directly above the table, and the plate looks round, like a circle. But walk away a few feet and look at it, and it looks much wider than long, like an ellipse, because of the angle you're at. The ellipse and circle are projectively equivalent.
This is one reason it is hard to learn to draw. The eye and the mind work projectively. They look at this elliptical plate on the table, and think it's a circle, because they know what happens when you look at things at an angle like that. To learn to draw, you have to learn to draw an ellipse even though your mind is saying `circle', so you can draw what you really see, instead of `what you know it is'.
In topology, any continuous change which can be continuously undone is allowed. So a circle is the same as a triangle or a square, because you just `pull on' parts of the circle to make corners and then straighten the sides, to change a circle into a square. Then you just `smooth it out' to turn it back into a circle. These two processes are continuous in the sense that during each of them, nearby points at the start are still nearby at the end.
The circle isn't the same as a figure 8, because although you can squash the middle of a circle together to make it into a figure 8 continuously, when you try to undo it, you have to break the connection in the middle and this is discontinuous: points that are all near the center of the eight end up split into two batches, on opposite sides of the circle, far apart.
Another example: a plate and a bowl are the same topologically, because you can just flatten the bowl into the plate. At least, this is true if you use clay which is still soft and hasn't been fired yet. Once they're fired they become Euclidean rather than topological, because you can't flatten the bowl any longer without breaking it.
Topology is almost the most basic form of geometry there is. It is used in nearly all branches of mathematics in one form or another. There is an even more basic form of geometry called homotopy theory, which is what I actually study most of the time. We use topology to describe homotopy, but in homotopy theory we allow so many different transformations that the result is more like algebra than like topology. This turns out to be convenient though, because once it is a kind of algebra, you can do calculations, and really sort things out! And, surprisingly, many things depend only on this more basic structure (homotopy type), rather than on the topological type of the space, so the calculations turn out to be quite useful in solving problems in geometry of many sorts.
For a more extensive essay on this topic with charming diagrams, see Neil Strickland's answer, and for an index of related essays, see Don Davis's list.

Windows Server 2008 'The Last 32-bit Operating System'

Windows Server 2008

'The Last 32-bit Operating System'

LOS ANGELES - During this morning keynote sessions at WinHEC 2007, Microsoft general manager for Windows Server Bill Laing officially proclaimed Windows Server 2008 "the last 32-bit operating system" the company will ever release, for either servers or clients.

"We're in the middle of a transition to 64-bit computing," Laing told this morning's audience. It was inevitable that this would happen, he went on, but now's as good a time as any given the fact that memory prices are continuing to fall. Historically the transitions to 16-bit and 32-bit computing were difficult to make, he said - perhaps he could have called them excruciating. "But once we get through it, you look back and realize all the benefits, and realize it was the right thing for the industry.

"Windows Server 2008 is the last 32-bit operating system that we'll produce," Laing then pronounced. "Post-2008, we will transition to 64-bit. Many Microsoft products are becoming 64-bit only today, because they're realizing the benefits of 64-bit computing. Exchange Server 2007, Windows Compute Cluster Server, and Windows Server Virtualization are all 64-bit only today, because they give significant benefits."

As testers begin installing Windows Server 2008 Beta 3, Laing noted, the company's noting a higher percentage of 64-bit adopters.

But what does this mean for operating system support down the road? If Laing's pronouncement holds true, even the Windows Server editions designated for home users (don't forget "Home Server" is a server) will be 64-bit only. That won't be a problem for system designers, though it may be a factor for individuals looking to build their own home servers on the cheap, perhaps using Gigabyte's upcoming Micro DTX form factor motherboards.

Future extensions to the Windows Server product line will also be 64-bit only apparently, including the new medium-sized business edition coming early next year, code-named "Centro," and its small business edition "Cougar" later in 2008. Currently the roadmap shows the R2 edition of WS2K8 showing up in 2009.

But service packs are also "inevitable." They're not considered releases (some reporters here asked the question a few times just to make sure), but rather extensions. They will have to support 32-bit installations already in the field.

Window Server 2008

Windows Server 2008

This new Server operating system bases on source code of the Windows Vista Kernel and carries the internal version number 6.0, build 6001. The successor of Windows server 2003 was developed under the code name "Longhorn". The operating system Windows Server 2008 from Microsoft shall further increase the reliability and flexibility in the server environment. This happens by interesting functions, efficient tools and the implementation of innovatively security features. The known Aero interface of Windows Vista was left out. A existing server installation with Windows Server 2003 or Windows Server 2008 Release Candidate is cabable for an upgrade. It is recommended to have at least a 2 ghz processor, 2 gb RAM and 40 gb of free storage on the hard disk. A new special feature which was never available before in a Windows operating system is beside the option Complete Installation the Server Core InstallationHyper-V presupposes a x64 processor of AMD or Intel with virtualization technology and offers a installable virtualization solution during or optionally after the installation. Several instances of operating systems like Windows and Linux can be executed at the same time on a computer with that.

The 4 main versions of Windows Server 2008 are different in the versions for 32 bit and 64 bit systems. For Itamium based computer systems (IA-64) Microsoft offers an optimized version as Web Server and Application Server. The functional range varies depending on variant and covers up to 17 server roles.

Windows Server 2008 Standard supports up to 4 GB RAM in the 32-bit version and 32 GB RAM in the 64-bit version. The operating system supports up to 4 processors. 12 server roles are complete supported, 4 partial and Active Directory Federation Services (ADFS) are not supported.

Windows Server 2008 Enterprise supports up to 64 GB RAM in the 32-bit version and 2 TB RAM in the 64-bit version. The operating system supports up to 8 processors. As field of application this server platform is recommended for the securing of business critical applications in Clusters. All server roles are supported.

Windows Server 2008 Datacenter supports up to 64 GB RAM in the 32-bit version and 2 TB RAM in the 64-bit version. The operating system supports depending on hardware up to 64 processors. As field of application this server platform is recommended for Computer Centres and Clusters. The replace of working memory and processors is possible without shutdown of the running operating system. All server roles are supported.

Windows Web Server 2008 supports up to 4 GB RAM in the 32-bit version and 32 GB RAM in the 64-bit version. As field of application this server platform is recommended for Web Server and supports only this server role.

Product features of Windows Server 2008 (depending on version):
without the Windows user interface only with a command line. The administration is possible completely in booth variants, but the core installation is limited to 8 server roles.

• Hyper-V, Windows Server Virtualization
• PowerShell new command line
• SMB 2.0 for faster file and printer access
• User Interface like Windows Server 2003
• "Bitlocker" for the complete encoding of the hard disk
• Windows SharePoint Services 3.0
• IIS 7.0 Webserver
• RODC (Read Only Domain Controller)
• NAP (Network Access Protection) to isolate unsafe clients
• WDS (Windows Deployment Services)
• WSRM (Windows System Resource Manager)
• Windows Server Backup
• NLB (Network Load Balancing)

The Windows Vista Service Pack 2 of 26th, 2009 brings the operating system up-to-date. In addition to the bug fixes, the Hyper-V virtualization solution is now an integral part of the operating system. With Windows Server 2008 Standard, an additional instance is already included in the license, even unlimited in the Windows Server 2008 Datacenter. The options for authentication over WebDAV redirector were increased and energy management improved. Backward compatibility to legacy terminal server of license keys with 512 bytes in size is now ensured. Older license keys of Citrix applications can now be also used to work on Windows Server 2008 Terminal Server.

Screenshots

Windows Server 2008, Choice of the language	Windows Server 2008, Beginning the installation	Windows Server 2008, Product activation	Windows Server 2008, Choice of the Enterprise Vrsion
Windows Server 2008, Licence agreement	Windows Server 2008, New installation or upgrade	Windows Server 2008, Target drive for installation	Windows Server 2008, Files are copied
Windows Server 2008, Login screen	Windows Server 2008, Overview after installation	Windows Server 2008, Choice of the Server Services	Windows Server 2008, Description for IIS
Windows Server 2008, Selecting the Features	Windows Server 2008, Description for Dateiserver	Windows Server 2008, Selecting the Features	Windows Server 2008, Confirm of the selected Services
Windows Server 2008, Overview after Configuration	Windows Server 2008, Startmenu with Tools	Windows Server 2008, Command prompt	Windows Server 2008, Internet Explorer with extended Security
Windows Server 2008, Service administration	Windows Server 2008, Windows Firewall with extended Security	Windows Server 2008, Server Manager

Versions

Date	Version
2007 Oct.	Windows Server 2008 Release Candidate 0
2007 Dec.	Windows Server 2008 Release Candidate 1
2008 Feb.	Windows Server 2008
2009 May	Windows Server 2008 Service Pack 2
2009 July	Windows Server 2008 R2

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